The Liability Of A Car Accident Essay Example For Students

The Liability Of A Car Accident Essay On December 12th 2012, round 5.40pm, my client, Mrs J. Smith, was involved in a car accident, which has caused her to be off work since the accident due to a broken back and several major surgeries. The accident was caused by the negligence of your client, Mr J. Sherwood, who was reported, by Mrs Smith, to be driving while ‘texting on his phone’, which led to him to crash into her car, as he did not spot at the red lights. In the previous letter I had sent, I stated what the liability requirement in the tort of negligence were, regarding this case. Now I am going to apply these criteria to the case in question. Firstly, there is evidence that the offender, Mr Sherwood, owed my client a duty of care, which he breached. The offender should have been driving reasonably, as he is an ordinary person doing a task, driving. The first part to check if a duty of care is owed is foreseeability, and it is clear that it was foreseeable that such accident would happen, as driving while using a hand-held phone would be classed as careless or dangerous driving, as the person capacity to drive would be lowered, due to them not being focused on the task, which in this case lead to a c car accident, and serious damage to a person, physical as well as mental, including the car itself.The second factor is proximity, which as previously explained means, how close or proximate was the event (timing), space and relationship . We will write a custom essay on The Liability Of A Car Accident specifically for you for only $16.38 $13.9/page Order now There is no relationship between Mrs Smith and Mr Sherwood, as they were two ordinary people driving on a road. However, the act of crashing into Mrs Smith’s car was proximate in time and space, as it was immediate, as well as the damages of the event. This increases the fact that Mr Sherwood owes my client a duty of care and has b. .the costs of these have to be included, as well as prescriptions, physiotherapy etc. On the other hand, the non-pecuniary losses, focus on the loss of future earning, and are more elevated. First of all, the costs for the repairs of the car would be of roughly ?350. The fact that Mrs Smith has been off work for such a long period, about 6 months, and she is estimated to be off work for another 6, causes the amount of compensation amount to raise. My client earned ?20.000 a year, which is what she’s going to lose. This added to the amount owed for the physical damages equals to ?74.000. My client is likely to recover from this accident, and will also be able to carry on her job as a teacher, meaning that are currently no other future losses which would be caused by this accident. Underneath I have included a screenshot of the website I used to come to this conclusion.

Impeachment Essays - Lewinsky Scandal, Politics Of The United States

Impeachment Essays - Lewinsky Scandal, Politics Of The United States Impeachment Impeachment: A long process It is the ultimate punishment for a president: impeachment. But it is a long and complicated route to removing a political official from office and never in more than 200 years of U.S. history has it happened to a president for treason, bribery or other high crimes and misdemeanors,'' as spelled out in the U.S. Constitution as reasons for impeachment. The Constitutional process Article II, Section 4, of the U.S. Constitution specifies the procedures to be used to remove the president, vice president or other officials from office. The rarely used procedure is complex, reflecting 18th-century formalities. The process opens in various ways through the House. In one process, the House votes on an inquiry of impeachment which would direct the Judiciary Committee to investigate the charges against the president. If a member of Congress takes the more serious step of introducing a resolution of impeachment, all other work must stop until a decision is reached. Either the president is cleared of the charges through an investigation, or the committee votes to send articles of impeachment to the full House. If the House approves articles of impeachment, a trial is conducted in the Senate, presided over by the chief justice of the Supreme Court. At the conclusion, the Senate may vote to simply remove the official from office, or to remove him or her from office and bar from holding any other federal office. Removal requires a two-thirds majority in the Senate. Could Clinton be impeached? House Judiciary Committee Chairman Henry Hyde, respected by both parties as a thoughtful lawmaker, said on CNN that impeachment could follow if Clinton were found to have urged a former White House intern to lie under oath. If he (independent counsel Kenneth Starr) verifies the authenticity of these charges, impeachment might very well be an option,'' the Illinois Republican said. At the Capitol some of Clinton's staunchest Republican critics showed deep discomfort at the prospect of impeachment proceedings. Only Rep. Bob Barr, the Georgia Republican who has campaigned for Clinton's impeachment for months, called the allegations the smoking gun'' and urged the House to start the process when it returns next week. But Clinton could face up to 10 years under a federal statute for obstruction of justice and conspiracy to commit crimes for persuading Monica Lewinsky to lie under oath. Only two other presidents came close to impeachment: In 1868 President Andrew Johnson was saved by one vote in the Senate after the House approved articles of impeachment against him over a dispute on the post-Civil War reconstruction of the South. In 1974 President Richard Nixon chose to resign in disgrace rather than face impeachment for his role in the cover-up of the Watergate break-in. There is substantial and credible information supporting the following eleven possible grounds for impeachment: 1. President Clinton lied under oath in his civil case when he denied a sexual affair, a sexual relationship, or sexual relations with Monica Lewinsky. 2. President Clinton lied under oath to the grand jury about his sexual relationship with Ms. Lewinsky. 3. In his civil deposition, to support his false statement about the sexual relationship, President Clinton also lied under oath about being alone with Ms. Lewinsky and about the many gifts exchanged between Ms. Lewinsky and him. 4. President Clinton lied under oath in his civil deposition about his discussions with Ms. Lewinsky concerning her involvement in the Jones case. 5. During the Jones case, the President obstructed justice and had an understanding with Ms. Lewinsky to jointly conceal the truth about their relationship by concealing gifts subpoenaed by Ms. Jones's attorneys. 6. During the Jones case, the President obstructed justice and had an understanding with Ms. Lewinsky to jointly conceal the truth of their relationship from the judicial process by a scheme that included the following means: (i) Both the President and Ms. Lewinsky understood that they would lie under oath in the Jones case about their sexual relationship; (ii) the President suggested to Ms. Lewinsky that she prepare an affidavit that, for the President's purposes, would memorialize her testimony under oath and could be used to prevent questioning of both of them about their relationship; (iii) Ms. Lewinsky signed and filed the false affidavit; (iv) the

Production and Operations Management Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Production and Operations Management - Essay Example There are generally five operation and supply performance objectives. These are: i. Cost: this is the ability of organization to produce at the minimum cost. ii. Quality: the organization’s capability to produce depending on its specifications without any error. iii. Speed: the ability of doing things rapidly in response to customers’ requirements and demands hence giving short lead times amidst when customers order product or services and the time they receive them. iv. Dependability: the ability of delivering products and services depending on promises conducted on customers. For instance in the quotation or any other published information. v. Flexibility: the ability of changing operations. ... That statement shows organization’s aspirations and values, hence the primary purpose and reason for its existence. Founded on the mission statement, those organizations formulate its business plan. The plan of that organization is a permanent to accomplish the mission set forth within its mission statement. Every function in that business may then derive its own plan to support the organization’s entire business strategy (Slack & Lewis, 2002). Mills (2002), operation and Supply strategy of an organization is thus the mutual concrete actions taken, mandated and stimulated within that organization’s strategy. This is implemented in that organization’s operation function. The operations plan brings together several operations actions and decisions into an interrelated persistent response into competitive forces. These are connected into organization’s programs, policies, actions and systems to a systematic reaction into the competitive priorities comm unicated and chosen by the business or corporate plan. Thus, the Operation and Supply strategy specifies the manner in which an organization lays its operation capabilities in support of the business strategies. How Operation and Supply strategy in industry affects the customer service Background and Objectives Operation and Supply strategy describes the certain kinds of value that organization delivers to its customers. It recognizes the business units to be involved in that organization. The organization unit strategy identifies capabilities, priorities and resource deployments required in support of that business strategy within the associated value proposition. All the levels of strategic

Racial Profiling Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Racial Profiling - Assignment Example This study also reveals the role of ethical and moral concepts in suitable decision-making hence showing the importance of making suitable judgment on individual appearances in the society. Introduction A number of modern techniques have been formulated to enhance security within society. Among these methods is racial profiling. This method utilizes various stereotypes in formulating security measures that are utilized in various law enforcing agencies in the country. This method has received acceptance among many developed societies despite raising a number of moral and ethical issues within society. In this study, focus is placed on the interaction between morals, ethics, and law within society. Question one Racial profiling is a matter of both discretion and ethics. First, racial profiling is a product of freedom among individuals. This freedom enables individuals to undertake any activity they deem right. For instance, in some European countries Chinese tenants are ejected from a partments since the proprietors fear that they may infect other individuals with the severe acute respiratory syndrome (Tator & Henry, 2006).This freedom of choice may be misused thus resulting to reintroduction of crimes such as racism in society. Secondly, racial profiling is an ethical issue since it employs various ethical concepts during its decision making stage. For instance, consequential theories in ethics suggest that an action is moral if the number of benefits it generates exceeds the number of shortcomings. Therefore, application of racial profiling techniques in averting crimes such as terrorism is moral (Zack, 2011). Question two According to Boss (2008), racial profiling has a number of ethical and moral dimensions. These dimensions are negative and positive dimensions. Outcomes from racial profiling help to determine whether its dimensions are positive or negative. These dimensions are evaluated using normative, consequential, and deontological and virtue ethics. Ac cording to normative ethics, an action is right or wrong based on the nature of the characters involved. For illustration, a bartender may refuse to sell alcohol to an individual of aboriginal origin based on their rude behavior when drunk. This explains the positive dimension of racial profiling. Muffler (2006) contends that racial profiling has a positive or negative dimension based on the resultant ratio of wrong and rights. Deontological ethics also argue that various choices made when executing racial profiling determine the dimensions of the technique. For instance, undertaking racial profiling to satisfy personal greed is forbidden in deontological ethics since it may result to increased crimes of hate within any society. Question three Harris (2003) contends that individuals in society place judgment on each other based on a number of reasons. These reasons include societal stereotypes, past experiences, personal behavior, and individual appearances. Societal concepts are a major determinant of people’s judgment within any setting. Among these concepts, societal stereotypes influence individual choices when passing judgments. For instance, in some societies individuals of color are viewed as inferior to the Europeans. This may influence the choices made during judgment hence creating a widespread view that individuals with a colored skin are inferior (Tator& Henry, 2006).Personal

Global and Domestic Marketing Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Global and Domestic Marketing - Essay Example (Cateora & Graham, 2002 13) The task of cultural adjustment, however ids the most challenging and important one confronting international, marketers; they must adjust their marketing efforts to cultures to which the re not attuned. In dealing with unfamiliar markets, marketers must be aware of the frames of references they are using in making their decisions or evaluating the potential of the market because judgments are derived from experience that is the result of the enculturative process. When a marketer operates in other cultures, marketing attempts may fail because of unconscious responses based on frames of reference acceptable in one's own culture but unacceptable in different surrounding. Unless special efforts are made to determine local cultural meaning s for every market, the marketer is likely to overlook the significance The foreign marketer should be a... operates in other cultures, marketing attempts may fail because of unconscious responses based on frames of reference acceptable in one's own culture but unacceptable in different surrounding. Unless special efforts are made to determine local cultural meaning s for every market, the marketer is likely to overlook the significance The foreign marketer should be aware of the principle of marketing relativism; that is, marketing strategies and judgments are based on experience, and experience is interpreted by each marketer in terms of his or her own culture. The market systems of different peoples, their political and economic structure, religions and other elements of culture, foreign marketers must constantly guard against measuring and assessing the markets against the fixed values and assumptions of their own cultures. (Brij Kumar & Steinmann, 1998 9) They must take specific steps to make themselves aware of the home cultural reference in their analysis and decision-making. The political environment No company, domestic or international, large or small, can conduct business without considering the influence of the political environment within which it will operate. One of the most undeniable and crucial realities of international business is that both host and home government are integral partners. (Cateora, 2002 152) A government reacts to its environment initiating and pursuing circumstances. Reflected in its policies and attitudes toward business are government's ideas of how to best promoting the national interest, considering its own resources and political philosophy. A government controls and restricts a company's activities encouraging and offering support or by discouraging and support or by discouraging and banning or restricting its activities

The Diverse Features Of Classroom Discourse

The Diverse Features Of Classroom Discourse English textbooks and English classroom interaction are important aspects of English teaching and learning. The aim of this study is to draw out the diverse features of classroom discourse or interaction with a focus on the spoken discourse consisting of different linguistic materials in relation to the textbook. The analysis of classroom discourse is a very important form which classroom process research has taken. The present study focuses on secondary (9 and 10) English Textbook (EFT) and English Classroom Discourse. English is increasingly becoming the dominant factor for the development of a country as the choices and opportunities in education, technology and global trades and business are being dominated by it. Nurturing a nations socio-economic development badly requires creative and adaptive workforce with English language proficiency. However, achieving the control and mastery in English is quite a challenging task particularly in Bangladesh, a developing country. After four decades of independence, Bangladesh is yet to formulate a clear policy for the status, uses and teaching of English at both academic and real life contexts. The country is struggling to produce a generation posing high level of skill and proficiency in English. Such situation necessitates reorganizing the existing textbook, curriculum, teaching methods and all other consideration of English. English needs to be recognized as an essential work-oriented skill that is needed if the employment, development and educational needs of the country are to be met successfully. English should, therefore, be taught as something to be used, rather than as something to be talked about. (NCTB, 1996: 135-136) The best way to study the English textbook and the classroom interaction is Discourse Analysis. Bringing discourse analysis into the language classroom cannot be reduced exclusively to the adoption of a series of new categories and analytical techniques. It requires the teacher, in the first place, and the students, subsequently to look at their teaching and learning task in a very different way: the main focus of study is not language but communication. (Cots, Joseph Maria, 1995). There is increasing awareness among linguists that discourse analysis inevitably involves analyses of meanings arising from the combination of multiple modes of communication. The evolving multimodal pedagogic environment for teaching English as a foreign language (TEFL), among other communicative contexts, calls for a social, semiotic, and linguistic explanation. Discourse is, in very much simple words, defined as the language in use (Cook, 1989:6) where discourse analysis is concerned with the the analysis of language in use (Brown and Yule, 1983:1). A discourse is a set of meanings through which a group of people communicate about a particular topic (merriam-webster). There is no agreement among linguists as to the use of the term discourse in that some use it in reference to texts, while others claim it denotes speech which is for instance illustrated by the following definition:Discourse: a continuous stretch of (especially spoken) language larger than a sentence, often constituting a coherent unit such as a sermon, argument, joke, or narrative (Crystal 1992:25). The relationship between language and the contexts in which it is used is referred by discourse analysis. Language form as well as language functions are studied by it with a close view towards both spoken course and written text. It brings out the linguistic aspects that identify different genres as well as social and cultural factors that assist in our interpretation and understanding of different texts and types of speech or conversation (Weihua Yu). Both language and education have interest in discourse analysis. Especially when the aim of the study is to analyze the discourse of secondary English textbook that is written discourse, and classroom interaction that is spoken discourse. There have been only a few attempts towards discourse analysis of either textbook or classroom interaction or of both. In Bangladesh there is no such attempt to be noted with a view towards the key items. Though there are some influential works in the field of discourse analysis, they hardly contribu te in the direction and development of Secondary English Textbook and Classroom Interaction. 1.2 Why Discourse Analysis of Textbook Many researchers have compared EFL textbook description of a certain target language structure with the language occurring in authentic, everyday situations (Gilmore 2004; Biber and Reppen 2002; Barbieri and Eckhardt 2007). Perhaps not surprisingly, these studies showed that textbook descriptions of target language structures in many ways do not correspond to the realization of these structures in the naturally-occurring written and spoken discourse. (Ã…Â  egedin, 2007) Textbooks comprise a fundamental component in the educational process; providing the basic sources of information to learners, especially at elementary school. Textbooks teach the subject content and other issues such as social and cultural topics as well as the values and beliefs of society (Hasan, 2008). Textbooks, to some extent, are written in accordance with the policy of the educational system in the country concerned. Accordingly the dominance of the textbook seems to be associated with the educational policy of a certain society, especially when classroom practice is determined by a national curriculum. Textbooks govern almost all classroom practice. They are useful educational tools for both learners and teachers as they have been designed along the lines of current research and approaches (Hasan, 2008). Textbook is used by the learners to organize their learning process by a variety of methods and strategies in order to perform tasks and activities in terms of lexical, grammatical and cultural progression. It is the communicative approach which continues to advocate the use of tasks based on spoken and written material. By providing an affirmative structure, the textbook gives pupils instructions, guides their practice and facilitates their learning and consequently ensures a meaningful and reliable environment. On the other hand, according to Hasan teachers depend on the textbook as they do not have time to collect and adapt material for their classes. And again, they find it extremely difficult to develop new material and they might face external pressure which may restrict them from doing so (Hasan, 2008). Therefore, teachers have a propensity to use a textbook as a main source of information and assistance. They move through it lesson by lesson leaving, however, enough scope for supplementary material (Hasan, 2008). It is discourse that helps us in understanding how real people use real language in real life situation, as opposed to studying artificially created sentences (Weihua Yu). It is therefore of immediate interest to language teachers because we need to consider how people use language when we design teaching materials, or when we engage learners in exercises and activities aimed at making them proficient users of their target language, or when we evaluate a piece of commercially published material before deciding to use it (Michael McCarthy, 2002). It is, therefore very important to analyze the discourse of the textbooks to draw out the exposed and hidden elements existing in it. It helps understand how much does the written elements worth serve the needed requirement. Again the discourse of the textbook of English, with a focus on secondary level, should be analyzed very sensitively to view whether these are quite good to supply needed materials to our education, necessary communication skill development and later to bring about necessary changes. English is a foreign language in Bangladesh and some cultural and social diversity and obviously difference from our mother tongue have always impeded the development of good communication skill though given enough effort. So it is very important to review the entire process and product whereby discourse analysis may play a great role. 1.3 Why Discourse Analysis of Classroom Interaction Classroom interaction analysis involves the use of an observation scheme consisting of a finite set of preselected and predetermined categories for describing certain verbal behaviors of teachers and students as they interact in the classroom (B. Kumaravadivelu, 1999). The first language classroom research of Bellack et al (1966) is traditionally considered as a pioneering study within this tradition. The study offered a simple description of classroom discourse involving a four-part framework: 1) structure, 2) solicit, 3) respond, 4) react (Dick Allwright Kathleen M.Bailey, 1991: 98). Through a detailed description and analysis of the collected data by referring to Sinclair and Coulthards classroom discourse analysis model, the problem of patterns of the classroom discourse is made clear and on the basis of which a few strategies for secondary English teachers are put forward by the author in order to improve secondary English teaching and learning. Spoken language is the most vital form of language as well as speaking -the key skill of communication. Since spoken language is the medium by which much teaching takes place and in which students demonstrate to teachers much of what they have learned (Cazden, 1987, cited from Wittrock, 1988), the application of discourse analysis to classroom interaction may contribute a lot in the second language teaching and learning by ensuring teachers close view toward the real life language using capability of the students, to develop them and development of the exposures. Nunan remarked that If we want to enrich our understanding of language learning and teaching, we need to spend time looking in classroom (Nunan, 1989:76). Development of both quantity and quality matters of the students are possible by the application of Discourse analysis in the textbook and classroom interaction. Meaning making of classroom interaction has been attempted by different scholars from diverse point of view. The discursive turn provided these scholars with theoretical and methodological frameworks that enabled them to examine the collaborative construction of meaning closely (ADGER, 2001; ANWARD, 1997; BLOOME et al., 2005; CAZDEN, 1988; EDWARDS; WESTGATE, 1994; MEHAN, 1979; PELEDELHANAN; BLUM-KULKA, 2006; THOLANDER; ARONSSON, 2003; VARDI-RATH, 2002; YOUNG, 1999; WELLS, 1999) in multicultural educational settings (EDWARDS, 1999; HYMES, 1997) (Irit Kupferberg, Sarah Shimoni and Esther Vardi-Rath, 2009). Meaning making of classroom interaction requires the discourse analysis of classroom interaction as well as of the textbook. Failed communication is a joint responsibility and not the fault of speaker or listeners says researchers of communicative teaching the way successful communication is an accomplishment jointly achieved and acknowledged (Jack C. Richards and Theodore S.Rodgers, 2000: 77); It is the teachers responsibility to organize the classroom as a setting for communication and communicative activities (Jack C. Richards and Theodore S.Rodgers, 2000:78). In recent years, turn-taking, questioning and answering, negotiation of meaning, and feedback are considered are important aspects of classroom interaction (Chaudron, 1988:10). Because second language learning is a highly interactive process (Richard and Lockhart, 1996:138) and the quality of this interaction is thought to have a considerable influence on learning (Ellis, 1985, cited from Richard and Lockhart, 1996:138). In second language classrooms, learners often do not have a great number of toolsà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦, teachers questions provide nec essary stepping stones to communication (Brown, 1994a: 165). Questioning is reported as one of the commonly used strategies, as the success of a class largely depends on questioning and feedback. One reason, as Mercer (Candlin Mercer, 2001:245) states, is that they form the most frequent model of teacher-student talk in the classroom, in terms of the model described by Sinclair and Coulthard as Initiation-Response-Feedback (IRF) exchanges. 1.4 The Relationship of Textbook and Classroom Discourse: In view of the arguments stated above, textbooks continue to play a major role in classroom interaction despite the controversial debate on their significance. Hutchinson and Torres (1994), for example, consider the role of the textbook in teaching and learning and in the process of change. They challenge the anti-textbook view and argue that the textbook has a vital and positive part to play in the everyday job of teaching and learning English (especially at elementary level) and that the textbook becomes even more important in periods of change. They call for a closer link between textbook creation and professional teacher training (hasan, 2008). FL textbooks in use today reflect significant changes in design and content with the advent of the language program (Bragger Rice, 2000, p. 110) in contrast with those in use just forty years ago that were dominated by vocabulary lists, seemingly random grammatical topics, and controlled exercises (Heather Willis Allen,2008). More fundamentally, however, it is because they are a teachers best instruments to regulate the quantity and quality of language used in the classroom. The problems which are going to be mainly investigated here are the discourse of second language that is English textbook and patterns of classroom discourse at secondary level in Bangladesh. Because two of the most common ways in which L2 teachers engage in interaction with learners is by way of asking questions and providing feedback, and these deserve some consideration (Holland and Shortall, 1997:104), with a in depth view to in these it can be expected to have an improved L2 teaching-learning in our country . Textbook and classroom interaction have a significant influence on each other. According to the textbook the classroom interaction is generally originated, flowed and ended. On the other hand classroom interaction has good motivation toward ensuring the good execution of the skills and others necessary elements of textbook. Secondary education is a very significant level of formal education because it is the level whereby either the preparation for the next stage is governed or the necessary vocational or technical ability is developed in a profound manner. The context specified here is secondary English classroom. English is not our second language rather it is our foreign language and it is of a great importance here. In Bangladesh, with the development of society and international communication, more and more importance has been attached to English teaching and learning. Secondary education graduates with good command of English language knowledge and competence are needed in our country to attain the aim of our education. As the fundamental aim of secondary English education is to foster communication skills and international understanding, it is of great interest to analyze their English classroom and textbook discourse in order to improve teaching and to make learners proficient users of English. The need to attain the curriculum determined aims and objectives it is required to be skilled in the four communicative expertises with good proficiency in the textbook which includes perfection in classroom interaction. 1.5 Objectives of the study: 1.5.1 General Objectives: To analyze the discourse of English textbook of secondary (9, 10) level. To analyze the discourse of Classroom interaction. To compare among the classroom interaction To compare the conversation of the textbook and real classroom interaction. 1.5.2 Specific Objectives: To analyze the conversation of the textbook English For Today(9-10) by drawing out the- Initiation-Response- Feedback/Follow-up of the conversations Turn-taking Cohesion and coherence To analyze the discourse of Classroom interaction to draw out the- The teacher initiated interaction. The student initiated interaction. Initiation-Response-Evaluation/Feedback/Follow-up of the conversations initiated by the teacher. Students Initiation (Non-Verbal)- Teachers Response-Students Initiation (Verbal) of the conversations initiated by the students. To compare the ratio of teacher initiated and student initiated interaction. To compare among the classroom interaction of the -Grade-1, Grade-2 and Grade-3 Schools. To compare the IRF and Turn-Taking of conversation of the textbook and real classroom interaction. 1.6 Some important key terms From the works of Cameron, Working with Spoken Discourse (2001, pp.87-98), Pridham, The Language of Conversation, (2001, pp.23-32), Brown and Yule, Discourse Analysis, (1983), Yule The Study of Language: 4th Edition (2010, p.124.127), Brown Yule, (1983, p.191-199) (cohesion and coherence), Prof. Hugo Bowles, (2008-09) and Sinclair and Coulthard (1975) the following terms and their definitions have been cited. 1.6.1. I-R-E/F Model: This is the modification or details of the IRF model of Sinclair and Coultherd. Sinclair and Coulthard (1975) developed a model for the description of teacher-pupil talk based on a hierarchy of discourse units. The language of the classroom differs from many forms of spoken discourse in that it is formally structured and controlled by one dominant party, i.e. the teacher. The Sinclair and Coulthards model was devised in 1975 and slightly revised in 1992. The classroom turn sequences typically have three parts rather than two. Namely: Teacher initiation (I), Student response (R), followed by Teacher evaluation (E) of the response. Through understanding the I-R-E structures of whole-class lessons, Researchers have come to important insights about teachers and students · social roles and relationships inside classrooms. In particular, the teacher, by evaluating what students say, assumes the right to control the talk. Also as initiator of the sequence, the teacher maintains the right to call on students and allocate turns in essence organizing and orchestrating the discussions. Within this teacher controlled turn-taking, participation structure, students must have certain discourse strategies and skills to perform well (Cazden. 1983; Griffin Humphrey. 1978: Mehan. 1979: Sinclair Coulthard. 1975). Mehan (1979) notes that being right in the classroom requires a student to respond (R) to a teachers initiation (I) not only with the correct content but also with the correct interactional timing and communicative conventions: otherwise the students response may be ignored, discounted, or not heard. There are eleven subcategories of teaching exchanges, one of which is eliciting exchange. To put it in detail, that is, the teacher raises a question, then the students answer it, and the teacher gives an evaluative follow-up before raising another question. The three moves that constitute an eliciting exchange are referred to as Initiation, Response and Follow-up. The three-move structure of an exchange (IRF) is commonly cited, and will also be the basis of data analysis. When a student replies the teachers question, the other students may not hear clearly sometimes. So the teacher needs to repeat the students words so as to make it clear to all the students. Whats more important is that the teacher should give feedback to the students answer, to show whether the answer is right or whether it is the answer expected by the teacher. 1.6.2 Conversation Analysis Conversation proceeds on the basis of one turn after another. Turn belongs to a single speaker. But how do we know when it is our turn to talk. Turns are negotiated and renegotiated by participants during conversation. Continual negotiation is a general feature of conversational organization. Turn-taking and turn constructional units (TCUs) TCUs are units of speech. The boundaries of these units are called turn transition relevance points (TTRPS). These are points at which intervention from another speaker is syntactically or semantically possible. At a TTRP: The current speaker selects the next speaker, or (if this does not operate) The next speaker self-selects The current speaker may continue Repair (simultaneous speech and silence) Participants will not usually talk at the same time. Simultaneous speech and silence are problems which need to be repaired. In simultaneous speech, one person usually wins the right to speak and be attended to by the other participants. When the turn taking rules (above) fail to operate, there is silence. Silence is a problem which needs to be repaired. Adjacency pairs Spoken interaction is often structured around pairs of adjacent utterances (utterances which occur one after the other) in which the second utterance is functionally dependent on the first. Question-answer: how are you? fine Greetings: good morning good morning In these sequences we expect the first part to be followed by the second part. If it is not there, we interpret it as rude, unfriendly or socially inept. Different types of questions produce different types of response. For example, a tag-question organizes a response better than an open question. Insertion sequences These sequences can be inserted between adjacency pairs. The topic of the insertion sequence is related to that of the main sequence in which it occurs and the main sequence continues after the insertion. Preferred and Dispreferred responses The preferred response to a proposal is acceptance, which can be performed without hesitation or elaboration. Agreement is a preferred response. The dispreferred response is refusal. It tends to be hesitant and elaborate (we often give reasons for a refusal). Disagreement is also and example of a dispreferred response. Discourse markers (markers of interaction) These have the general function of moving the conversation on but they may have specific functions, depending on the conversation: to signal to the listener that the speaker wishes to continue speaking (a filler) to signal where the conversation is going For example, well may be used to indicate a) the opening of a conversation, b) that the speaker is about to say something which is in conflict with what has been said earlier. 1.6.3 Cohesion and coherence A sequence of sentences is a text when there is some kind of dependence between the sentences. The task of textual analysis is to identify the elements that cause this dependence. These elements are elements of cohesion (cohesive elements) and elements of coherence. A. Cohesion There are a number of categories of cohesive elements: Conjunctive relations What is about to be said is explicitly related to what has been said before, through such notions as contrast (but, however, nonetheless), result (so, therefore, nevertheless etc.) and time (when after, before etc.). Coreference These are features which cannot be semantically interpreted except by reference to some other feature in the text. They can be of two types anaphoric relations, which look backwards for their interpretation and cataphoric relations, which look forwards. References to assumed, shared worlds outside of the text are Exophoric References. Because they are not text internal, they are not truely cohesive, but because they are an equally important part of the reader/ listeners active role in creating coherence, they should be included in the analysis. Substitution Substitution is when a cohesive element replaces a previous word or expression. Pronouns (I, me etc.) and words of personal reference (myself, yourself etc.) are examples of cohesion by substitution. Ellipsis Ellipsis occurs when a structure is omitted and can only be recovered from previous discourse. Repetition Repetition is when an expression or part of an expression is repeated. This is very common in speech (see lesson on characteristics of speech). The repetition of tense and other syntactic patterns is very important for cohesion. Comparison In comparative cohesion something is always compared with something else in the discourse. Words of identity (e.g. same as), similarity (e.g. very like), difference (e.g. unlike); distinctness (e.g. totally different) are important for comparative cohesion. Something is always compared with something else in the discourse B. Coherence The textual world (what the text is about) is made up of concepts and relations. Coherence concerns the way in which concepts and relations are mutually accessible and relevant. In other words, a coherent text is one which is easy for us to understand because it is easy for us to make a mental representation of it. Remember that it is possible for a text to be cohesive but not coherent. The Faulkner text is full of cohesive elements but it is not easy to understand. 1.7 Rationale: Discourse analysis has been used to understand a wide range of texts including natural speech, professional documentation, political rhetoric, interview or focus group material, internet communication, newspapers and magazines and broadcast media. There are many different types of discourse analysis such as conversation analysis, discursive psychology, critical discourse analysis and Foucauldian discourse analysis. Each of these has its own assumptions, emphasis and methods but the key overlapping interest is in the way meaning is constructed in communication. The motivation to this work was to compile a set of useful approaches to analyze the communication processes of textbook to draw out the materials and again the classroom conversation which means a lot to the teaching-leaning of ESL. Another very significant reason working as a catalyst for the study is that there is hardly any work done in this area and this study, without any doubt can provide with legendary achievement for t he stakeholders if done properly. It will facilitate the Language education of Bangladesh by providing with an example of applied discourse analysis. On the other hand this work will provide with a good document for further study regarding discourse analysis. As many classroom-oriented researchers have pointed out, it is only through a better understanding of classroom interaction processes that teachers can render their teaching more profitable for learners (Jamila Boulima, 1999:15). This study is significant in that it studies the textbook with a view to discourse analysis and also attempted to reveal the characteristics of classroom interaction that is most favorable for promoting learners English and has insightful implications for English teaching and learning. The aim of the present study is to develop the textbook writers and teachers reflective thinking about what goes on in the text and their own classrooms and to provide information for improving teaching and learning in secondary English classrooms. There are a number of approaches to discourse analysis, some of which are: speech act theory, interactional sociolinguistics, ethnography, pragmatics and conversation analysis are the most important ones. (Brown Yule, 1983) This qualitative study examines spoken communication (talk/speech/spoken texts/spoken messages) between speaker (teacher/ student) and listener (teacher/ student) and written communication (conversation of the textbook) between the textual character. It stresses the need to see language as a dynamic, social interactive phenomenon. Meaning is conveyed not by single sentences but by more complex exchanges, in which the participants beliefs and expectations, the knowledge they share about each other and about the world, and the situation in which they interact, play a crucial part (Bowels, 2008-09).

Blackberry Picking Essay -- Poems Poetry Berries Essays

Blackberry Picking Blackberry picking is about greed, growing up, how we struggle in life and how pleasure can be taken away from us very quickly. Heaney writes retrospectively, about the times he as a child would go blackberry-picking every year, as a metaphor for these experiences. The first stanza of the poem is mostly quite positive and enthusiastic. The first part of the stanza describes the the ripening of the berries, â€Å"given heavy rain and sun for a full week, the blackberries would ripen†. He also gives us an image of the berries. Heaney uses the metaphor â€Å"a glossy purple clot† for the ripe berries, and the similie â€Å"hard as a knot† for the unripe berries. When you say â€Å"hard as a knot†, the sound is quite short, indicating that the berries are not yet ripe. It then continues to write about the frenzy of picking them - â€Å"lust for picking†. Heaney presents the tasting of the berries as a sensual process, and also uses words like â€Å"flesh†, and â€Å"thickened wine† to make the berries sound so desirable. Alsoâ€Å"lust†, to describe the childrens unrestrained desire and appetite for them. Heaney uses a lot of figurative language in this poem. Personification and a series of metaphors and similies are used: â€Å"flesh was sweet like thickened wine†, the berry is personified and there is use of a similie, the metaphor â€Å"summer’s blood†, referring to the hard work and nourishment that nature has put into it, and then suddenly it is taken away by the children. It is the peoples â€Å"hunger† and â€Å"lust†for the berries that sends them out to fill up their â€Å"milk-cans, pea-tins, jam-pots† until they are fully filled up with blackberries – â€Å"until the tinkling bottom has been covered†. Onomatopoeia is used - â€Å"tinkling... ...ow long and painful the process of picking the blackberries are, how they got their hands full of thorn pricks. Then after a short while, the berries start to rot, and the â€Å"sweet flesh† of the berries would turn sour. Heaney writes this poem to reveal that life is about disappointment, and that good things won’t last, while relating it back to a childhood event of his past. It is also about growing up, and ageing, as we get the contrast of the adults and childrens view in the last stanza. I found this poem very enjoyable and interesting to study, because when I was reading the poem, it almost felt like I could taste the blackberries. I like his use of figurative language, especially the way he described the berries. Another reason why I liked this poem is because I like the way Heaney uses past events of his life to express certain ideas about life.